In May of 253 Trebonianus Gallus and Volusian was marching to meet the rebel Aemilian. On the eve of the battle, the troops of Gallus revolted, murdering the emperor and his son. Ostensibly now the ruler of the Roman empire, Aemilian immediately had to face another challenge: The leader of the Rhine legions, Publius Licinius Valerianus, had refused to recognize him as emperor. Valerian's own troops hailed him as Augustus, and showing that what "goes around comes around", Aemilian's troops murdered him when seeing Valerian's larger army.

Valerian was immediately accepted by the Senate as the new emperor, raising his son Gallienus with him. Valerian foreshadowed the reformist policies of Diocletian by splitting the empire into two administrative divisions - he took the east, and left in 254 to begin constant campaigns against the Goths in Asia Minor, and against the Persian incursions into Syria. He would not return to Rome.

Valerian had mixed results with both the Goths and Persians, as battles were won and lost. Late in his reign his army also suffered a devastating plague outbreak. In June of 260 he was meeting during a truce with the Sasanian Persian king Shapur I, when the treacherous Shapur violated the truce and captured Valerian, taking him back to his camp as a prisoner. The Roman troops were badly demoralized by this, and it ended up being a great victory for the Sasanians. Shapur had carvings made of this, including one below his tomb in Naqsh-i Rustam.

This immense carving shows Shapur mounted, clasping the arm of Valerian (whom he had "captured by his own hand"). The earlier Roman emperor Phillip the Arab, who had sued Shapur for peace, kneels before the horse. Some versions of this carving also include the emperor Gordian III, who died while campaigning against Shapur, being trampled under the horse.

Versions of what happened to Valerian afterwards differ, but he certainly died while in Sasanian captivity. Many of his men had also been captured, and were settled throughout the Sasanian kingdom, serving their new masters.

Most of the surviving information about Valerian comes to us from later Christian historians, who take a very dim view of Valerian due to his persecutions of 257-259 (the "Eighth Persecution" of the Christian Church.) According to some sources these were instigated by his general Macrianus (who later rebelled against Gallienus). Some of the dictates passed forbid the Christians from assembly, from entering the catacombs, and the leaders were ordered into exile. These repressions were not very successful, and were limited to fairly scattered locations. Some of these historians almost gleefully pointed to the capture of Valerian as an example of divine wrath.

Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus was about 40 when his father Valerian was declared emperor by his troops in 253. Gallienus was made Caesar immediately by his father, but was declared as an emperor (Augustus) within a month, when his father arrived in Rome. In the next year he was given responsibility over the western provinces, while Valerian moved east to fight the new Persian Sassanian kingdom. They would not see each other again.

Gallienus ruled as a co-emperor from 253-260, before the treacherous capture of his father by the Sassanian king Shapur I. Gallienus' sons had also been declared as Caesars, but by the end of 260 both had perished. From 260-268 he ruled alone, during one of the most difficult times of the empire. Not only was the empire facing invasions on all sides from various barbarian groups, but he had to face at least 8 rebellions from his own governors and generals!

Given the disasters that occurred during his reign and the fact that "the winners write the history books", it's not surprising that he is portrayed very negatively. However, given the fact that Gallienus managed to remain emperor for fifteen years during all of this chaos suggests otherwise. A look at the battles and rebellions that took place show him going back and forth almost constantly during his reign fighting battles, trying to hold his empire together. He simply had the misfortune to be the ruler of the Roman Empire at the time when, through a variety of reasons, the empire seemed bent on falling apart. Gallienus managed to bring the empire through this incredibly difficult period without complete disaster.

Perhaps due to all of these problems, the rate of inflation soared incredibly during this period. The antoninianus, which had begun as a silver coin, was by now heavily debased. So many of these were being pumped out of the mints that they now offer the collector a huge, and generally very affordable, selection.

On the religious front, Gallienus rescinded Valerian's policies against the Christians with imperial edicts establishing freedom of worship, restoring some lost property, and access to their cemeteries. This peace with the Christians lasted 260-303. One such proclamation to the bishops in Egypt ran as follows: "The Emperor Caesar Publius Licinius Gallienus, Pius, Felix, Augustus, to Dionysius (bishop of Alexandria), Pinnas, Demetrius, and the other bishops. I have ordered the bounty of my gift to be declared through all the world, that they may depart from the places of religious worship. And for this purpose you may use this copy of my rescript, that no one may molest you. And this which you are now enabled lawfully to do, has already for a long time been conceded by me. Therefore Aurelius Cyrenius, who is the chief administrator of affairs, will observe this ordinance which I have given."

Gallienus began the separation of the military and civil services in the provinces, making the senatorial governors civil administrators. This reduced the power of the governors, making revolts more difficult. This reduction in the power of the senatorial class also made Rome less of a center of power. These factors combines explain the emnity Roman writers have towards Gallienus.

This reign was known as the "Gallienic Renaissance", largely because of Gallienus and Salonina's patonage. They were also connected with the Neoplatonic philospher Plotinus, and advances in both art and philosophy are known. Unfortunately the increase in support for the arts did not extend to the coins - while the coins of Gallienus provide a rich variety of themes, they graphically demonstrate the rapid decline in material and quality of workmanship.

Unfortunately, very little is known of Julia Cornelia Salonina. She was a patron of the arts, and was called by some "Chrysogena", Greek for "begotten of gold". It's likely that she was killed at Milan after the murder of her husband.

Much speculation has been generated by a coin of Salonina with the reverse legend "Augusta in Pace" (Empress in peace). The epithet "in pace" was used by Christians a century later, and Christian historians have suggested that this legend, along with Gallienus' restoration of religious rights to Christians, proves that Salonina herself held this faith. In fact, there is absolutely no evidence of this. Salonina is well documented as having supported the Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus, and her coins bear traditional Roman themes and deities.

Publius Licinius Cornelius Valerianus was the eldest (or eldest surviving?) son of Gallienus and Salonina. He was made caesar under his father in 256, but died only 2 years later. It isn't clear how he died, but he was on the Danube frontier at the time. From his young portraits, he was perhaps 8 when he became caesar, and only 10 at his death.

Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus was made caesar after the death of his elder brother in 258. He was placed in the care of the Praetorian Prefect, Silvanus, and was in Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) when the commander of the Rhine legions, Postumus, was declared emperor by his troops. They were besieged in the town, and eventually captured. Saloninus was killed, though this is completely out of character with what we know of Postumus - it is likely that the murder was carried out without his consent. Judging from his coin portraiture Saloninus was quite young, perhaps 10 when he died.