In the January 2002 issue of The Celator, John Twente has an excellent article entitled "Animal Reverses of Gallienus and Phillip II; Why Are These Moose Called Goats?" In this article he concentrates on pointing out why the Saeculares issues of Philip II, which in the past have been described as a goat, are actually elks. To be exact, the denarius (RIC.204) shows an elk with the upright spikes of a juvenile male, while the sesterius (RIC.264a) shows an adult male (often confused with the moose in the US). He has also pointed this out in an article in the SAN journal (IX:4, ppg. 57-59, 1978). These are excellent points, and the animals depicted on these coins without doubt more resemble European Elk, Alces alces. He also points out that elk were documented as have been presented at the Saecular Games, held in 248 to celebrate the millenium of Rome.

Though all the points Dr. Twente makes center around the issues of Philip II, at the very beginning and end of the article he connects the IOVI CONS AVG "goat" coins of Gallienus with the Saeculares coins of Philip. Unfortunately he doesn't offer the logic behind this connection. While the Saeculares coins of Philip (and his father and mother) are commemorating the millenium of Rome, often by showing various animals presented at the games, the Gallienus "Zoo" series is separated from this event by 20 years. During the reign of Gallienus the empire was literally trying to fall apart; he was facing numerous revolts from within the empire, invasions from without, a devastating plague, plus the actual capture of the senior emperor, Valerian I (father of Gallienus). The inscription on the Zoo series coins tell exactly what they meant - "... CONS AVG" (Conservator Augusti) is asking the named deity for protection, in this particular case Jupiter. Dr. Twente also seems to ignore the rest of the series, apparently only connecting this one issue to the Saecular games held 2 decades before.

The connection of Jupiter with a goat is seen on other coins, from other emperors. It's also well known from mythology, in the connection of Zeus/Jupiter with Amalthea. As an infant, Jupiter is fed goat's milk by a nymph named Amalthea. Other versions of this myth have him suckling directly from a goat named Amalthea. The fact that some of these coins display the goat as a female with enlarged mammary glands (ready for nursing or milking) show that this connection also existed in the mind of the engraver. Representations on other coins such as the one below sometimes have the baby Jupiter holding Amalthea's horn - this refers to him breaking off one horn and endowing it with the power to become filled with whatever the bearer might wish - this is the origin of the cornucopia.




The reverse of a coin of Valerian II (a son of Gallienus). This shows the infant Jupiter seated on the Amalthean goat, while clutching one of her horns.

Rather than the juvenile "spike" antlers or spreading palmate adult antlers of the elk, the Gallienus goat coins show long, backwards-curving horns, sometimes ridged. These match beautifully with the Ibex (Capra ibex and related species) known throughout Europe, central Asia, the Middle East, and north Africa. The Romans were quite familiar with the ibex - indeed, according to some accounts they hunted them to near extinction!

The other physical characteristics of the elk pointed out by Dr. Twente - the bulbous snout and the "bell" flap of flesh hanging from the throat - simply don't match up with the Gallienus coins. The goats show a tapered snout, and the classic "goatee" hanging from the chin.

Dr. Twente has done a great service by pointing out the misattribution of the Philip II coins. He has also done an excellent job pointing out the possibilities for misattribution of the Gallienus "Zoo" coins, with which I fully agree. I do feel there is a strong possibility that the European Elk does show up within this series, on the Juno coins of Salonina. These are commonly attributed as a "doe", yet they do have antlers (slightly palmate) and a very convincing bell or goatee. I would invite his opinions on these Juno coins.

If you have an comments, questions, or corrections, please email me.
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